Epic Rivalry: The Inside Story of the Soviet and American Space Race Essay

Outer space, in a wider sense, can be considered both a beauty and a mystery. From the conception of the universe such as the â€Å"Big Bang Theory†, to the discovery of the different planets through powerful telescopes, nothing proves to be more ambitious than to have â€Å"manned† explorations on outer space. Indeed, when Sputnik was launched in outer space in 1957, it triggered the so-called â€Å"space race† between the America and the Soviet Union. The race began with Sputnik in 1957 and culminated by walking on the moon of Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong in 1969. The book, Epic Rivalry: The inside Story of the Soviet and American Space Race, narrates the space race of these two powerful nations during the Cold War. Written by Von Hardesty, a Smithsonian guardian or curator; and Gene Eisman, it showed how the compelling rivalry had played a significant role in space exploration both with Russian and with the American point of view. The book also showed scores of unpublished, exceptional, and powerful photographs and the apprehensive drama of the two nation’s progress with Soviet Union’s Nikita Khrushchev and America’s John F. Kennedy at center stage. The foreword, written by Sergei Khrushchev, was eventually the son of Soviet Union premier Nikita Khrushchev The title of the book was also significant: the main title, Epic Rivalry, focused on the premature heated antagonism between the United States and the Soviet Union. The duration of the conflict started in 1957 when Sputnik went to outer space up to the Apollo landing on the moon in 1969. The book covered a balance, straightforward, and a chronological assessment of that period including the events during the 1940’s and 1950’s that led to the birth of the Space Age. The central characters of the book were Wernher von Braun and Sergei Korolev, and supported by other astronauts, cosmonauts, engineers, and even politician of that time. The chapters were separated by two and four paged sidebars on topics that were technical such as atomic propulsion, and orbital mechanics. Several photographs were also included, black and white and also of colored nature, upon which some came from Russia and rarely been published. The subtitle of the book, â€Å"The inside Story of the Soviet and American Space Race†, revealed the â€Å"inside stories† behind the space race though some people who lived on that era may know the story behind it. These could be eminent since the book relied on secondary sources such as articles, books, and only a few based on the endnotes can be attributed to primary sources such as interviews, and historical documents. Except for the foreword, written by Sergei Khrushchev who once worked as an engineer in the era of the space program, that offered an inside account of the early Soviet Union’s space program. The narrative point of view of the author had a twofold approach: to restructure the corresponding universes of the Russian and the American space exploration programs, and then to recognize how these two separate nations interacted in a fateful and necessary means. The apparent race became the point of study in a contrasted approach. The author emphasized that both nations had used their corresponding military technology to structure their space programs. The Russian developed their space program in absolute secrecy and concealment, even the long term and specific goals, not to mention their leader in the space program were never divulged, while the Americans remained unfasten and depended on public support except for the military aspects of their space programs. Aside from these, the book also examined the key role of politics and the significant political figures in shaping the route of the space exploration program. The key person on the Soviet side was Premier Nikita Khrushchev who took an ardent interest in the space exploration programs seeing the potential of the propaganda â€Å"space first†. The United States was not as keen at the beginning on the space program with Dwight Eisenhower being hesitant on the expensiveness of the program. The U. S. took cautions on their space programs until John F. Kennedy presided over Eisenhower and made considerable turn-around on their space programs. He eventually pushed through the program when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the first manned orbital journey, and with the context of the then Cold War. Thus, Kennedy committed to the U. S. to send the first humans on the moon. His advocacy was clearly supported by Lyndon Johnson and followed by Richard Nixon. Also included on the book were the talented engineers, scientists, and managers whose creative and ingenious works had helped significantly the development of their nation’s respective space programs. Notable were the two main characters of the book: Wernher von Braun who came to the U. S. at the end of World War II together with the group of experienced German rocket technicians. His team contributed much to the advancement of the rocket program of the United States. Afterwards, James Webb together with capable administrators oversaw the space program of NASA. On the other side, Sergei Korolev (also known as the inexplicable â€Å"Principal Designer†) headed the Soviet Union’s space program. Located at the remote area of Baikonur spaceport, he worked also with highly competent and motivated engineers and designers. Both nations eagerly pursued their space programs collectively with missile development and research. The space travelers were also central in the book such as Yuri Gagarin of Russia, Alexei and Titov Leonov of Germany; John Glenn, Alan Shepard, and Gus Grissom of the United States. All of them displayed exceptional skills and courage and therefore gained popularity. The Apollo 11 mission, wherein Glenn, Shepard, and Grissom were the astronauts, had brought almost a decade of space race between the Russia and the United States to a remarkable conclusion. From the standpoint of technological advancement, the book effectively described how the two powerful nations had engaged in a subsequent â€Å"race† towards the space explorations. The different relevant factors were clearly included such as the engineers, scientists, politicians, astronauts and cosmonauts. Though much of the book used secondary sources, there were some primary sources that can be seen on the endnotes and those people who lived on that era would actually now what transpired even not reading the book. There were also some errors such as the statement that the MIR remained in orbit from 1971 to 2001 (Hardesty and Eisman p. 249) or some minor slip-up such as referring to the map of Kennedy Space Flight Center (Hardesty and Eisman p. 159). But nonetheless, the book displayed the relevant story behind the space exploration between two power nations: both in the context of the American and of the Russian point of view. These undertaking started what seemed to be the present space age and will effectively give aspirations and relevant information to the youth of today. Works Cited Hardesty, Von and Eisman, Gene. Epic Rivalry: The Inside Story of the Soviet and American Space Race. Random House Publishing. September 2008.

Miss Julie/a Dolls House

2) Miss Julie/ A Dolls house DFK 120 Erene Oberholzer 11045231 Dr. M. Taub 4 September 2012 In this essay two plays, Miss Julie written by August Strindberg, and A Dolls House written by Hendrik Ibsen will be compared and concerns such as gender, identity and class will be contextualized. The section I’ve chosen to portray realism and other elements concerning these two plays resourced to the last pages of both scripts. As I see the last pages construct the difference between the plays and characters. Both these plays inform a strand of realism, as in the Traditional Western canon.Third world text can be characterized by their degree of immediacy, topicality, mimetic quality, and even social realism (Gugelburger, G. M:1991). Realism: The term Realism introduces a strand of thought and considers the world as not reality but, mere appearance. We have no access to â€Å"reality† other than through representations. Yet, all representations only show us particular perspectiv es on reality. When people use the term â€Å"realistic† to describe a film they are saying the film shows them an image of reality that they have come to know.Realism is a constructive construct, produced by reconcilable codes and conventions which change over time. Realism has been constructed to point out existing social reality. Naturalism, on the other hand, conveys a representation that looks sounds and feels like the actual world outside the work of art. Naturalism looks sounds and feels like the things we would expect (Bob Nowlan [sn]: [sp]). Where Ibsen trends more to the line of realism, Strindberg informs naturalism in his writings. For Strindberg ‘good’ naturalism looked for natural conflicts. For him true naturalism meant truth to nature.He was determined to have his plays deal with fundamental truths. Miss Julie contains traces of symbolism, which were born out of the foundation of naturalism. Although many believe that due to the use of symbolic af fects in Miss Julie, the play drifts away from the naturalistic, and more to the realistic. Strindberg used all the elements needed for the development of the plot and the transference of superiority from Julie to Jean. Naturalism does not help for the development of the plot, whereas realism is a structure that reveals real life events and is focused on the people portrayed, as shown in Miss Julie.Strindberg wanted to create dramatic illusion. His audience was to be completely convinced of the reality of the world off stage, and then transported into a sphere of influence. Ibsen’s contribution to realism began when he consciously started to dramatize the forces and frictions of modern life. Ibsen indicates in A Dolls House that he was creating a particular life through Nora. Ibsen’s dialogue of A Dolls House comes of naturally; he wanted the spectator to sit down, listen and look at events that happens in real life.Ibsen wrote mainly about hidden relationships, social conversion and secret fears and anxieties Strindberg’s play was actually written as a response to Ibsen’s A Doll house. Ibsen wrote his plays advocating women, and Strindberg had a contrary view. Hendrik Ibsen’s attitude toward society is evident in his double vision of a secure social position. On the one hand, it’s a defense against attack, on the other; such concerns lead to hypocrisies and superficial values. His play reveals him as far more than a realist (Taylor, J. 972: [sp]). Comparing: My examples of both plays illustrate the elements of gender, identity and class. Both playwrights scripts set the last page out to set everything about the differences of these elements. By the ending we can see the fall (Strindberg) and rising of the woman (Ibsen) in social society that time. Gender, class&identity in A Dolls House: Hendrik Ibsen was known as the father of modern drama as he helped popularize realism. He became an observer of the real human life and informed realism in drama.In 1877 Norway’s social structure influenced Ibsen’s writings. He wanted to extol freedom and truth in his people. A Dolls House questions the suppressed role of women in that time’s society and also introduced the woman as having their own goals and own purposes. Torvald reveals many times his prejudice viewpoint on gender roles. He believes his wives duty is to be at home and embarks on her to always appear beautiful. The central conflict in this playwright revolves around Trovald’s controlling treatment of his wife.The tragedy of this story is not only about a man controlling his wife, but also the â€Å"dehumanizing of the children† (Mahal 2012;476). They are never given a chance to improving their position in the society. Nora, in the beginning of the play, seems to be happy and content whereas she acts out child like qualities. When Torvald walks in Nora’s childlike qualities becomes more transparent. His true character is later revealed when he accuses Nora of forgery and when he tries to disown her. His attitude changes when everything is sorted out, but she walks out of the marriage.Nora is depicted until the end of the play as a â€Å"helpless, mindless fool† (Mahal 2012: 476). In the end of this story this degrading treatment of Nora by her husband is resolved. This play stresses upon the status of women and how their roles were perceived, as mothers and wives. Nora feels like she’s been used as doll for her father and her husband, with no depth in their relationships. Nora exits her ‘doll’s house’ with a door slam, emphatically resolving the play with an act of bold self-assertion. A Doll’s house appears to mislead the audience of the characters true colors.Our first impression of Nora is that she is childlike and Torvald is seen as strong. The play’s climax leads to the expose of resolving identity confusion. Nora becomes to be a brave woman and Torvald a sad man. Gender, class&identity in Miss Julie: Strindberg was a Swedish playwright and drew his writings from personal experiences. He failed at three marriages. Circumstances made him a naturalistic writer. He was known as a misogynist and a â€Å"women hater†. In Miss Julie (1879) he expresses his hatred for the opposite sex.He was forced to write a second ending for the play after much controversy. The play was censored all over Europe as the play was socially offensive to women. The daughter of a count has an affair with a valet, who in turn forces her to commit suicide. Strindberg had an eye for injustice, but only dealt with the problem of women’s rights as a facet of realism in his plays. Julie suffers an identity crisis and displays her regard for class and gender conventions. She mingles with the servant when a party is thrown.She expresses absurd behavior but on other times she is coy. Jean warns her of her behavior as she was seen as a temptress. She wavers between the high and low class identity, and is in the end confused with her own identity. Julie also identifies herself with both female and male figures. She confesses she has no self she can call her own. The characters in Miss Julie are portrayed through gender, class and ideology. In the end she orders Jean to hypnotize her to commit suicide. The play reveals Julie having no control over her sexual instincts.Once Julie and Jean seduced each other, their lives are changed (Ramandeep Mahal 2012: [sp]) mentions that â€Å"the aristocrat in the social sphere becomes the slave of the valet and the valet becomes the aristocrat in the sexual sphere as Julie lowers herself beyond redemption†. Julie is seen as an example of the naturalistic movement. â€Å"The characters are seen as helpless products of hereditary and environment who interact with their minds and bodies, as they would in real life† (Mahal 2012: [sp]). Both playwrights by Ibsen an d Strindberg came of shocking the audience of their time, with the way they portrayed their women characters.They’re portrayal of sex and divorce was set off to much controversy (Mahal 2012:475). A Dolls House is considered to be more feminist work, where Strindberg has been seen as â€Å"his arch enemy† on that point. Ibsen has been seen to deny writing in a feminist point of view; he has said many times that he wrote for the â€Å"everyday man†. Strindberg tended to emancipate woman. For example when Julie grows conscious about her humiliation she falls to Jean’s knees. Jean triumphantly stands over her. This also symbolizes the hierarchy of the 1800’s.These ideas govern the central world of the everyday in the aspect that they inform social hierarchies and show out elements of real happenings people experience everyday. Women were demanded by men, and men were befallen to the beauty of women. In that time of social structure woman belonged in th e kitchen (As Strindberg’s points out in Miss Julie) and they were there to raise the kids and beautify their homes. That was the real world. Some of these conventions still stand today in aspect of class and gender. Resources: Ibsen, H. A. A Dolls House. Gugelburger, G.M. 1991. â€Å"Germainistik†, the Canon, and Third world literature. Mahal, R. 2012. A comparative study of Portrayal of women in Ibsen’s A Dolls House and Strindberg’s Miss Julie. Available. [o]. Accessed 2 September 2012 www. rspublication,com Lukas, Nowlan, B. An introduction to the problematics of Realism in video, film, and moving image- culture. Available. [o]. Accessed 2 September 2012 www. uwec. edu/ranowlan/realism film_video_moving-imag_culture. html. Taylor, J. C. 1972. Ritual, realism, and revolt: Major traditions in the drama. New York: Schribner.

Information Technology Infrastructure Library (ITIL) Essay - 2

Information Technology Infrastructure Library (ITIL) - Essay Example This paper studies the ITIL framework and comes to the conclusion that this body of knowledge is extremely useful for all organizations in the above mentioned areas. Introduction: The role of information technology (IT) in today’s world is of extreme importance for the smooth running of businesses and other organizations. It can be said the there is practically no field that is not touched by IT, whether it is in manufacturing, services, defense, and even governance. The main reasons for this heavy dependence on this technology are the complexity of operations and also due to the adaptability of IT systems in fitting into every conceivable area of activity. In such a scenario, it was seen as a necessity to standardize IT management concepts and also to formulate a set of best practices that can serve as a comprehensive guideline to IT based organizations. In the UK, this concept was materialized by the formation of the Information Technology Infrastructure Library (ITIL) during the 1980s. Many governments and organizations around the world have now accepted the guidelines as industry standard over the years. The purpose of this study is to establish wh ether ITIL provides the best practice guidelines for IT service management. The three points that will be used to establish the above is given here. The first is that the ITIL does provide comprehensive guidelines and framework for efficient information technology management. The second point is that the program can be incorporated into an IT management system either in its entirety or in part. The third point is that the program can be customized to suit the requirements of each individual organization. Comprehensive guidelines and ITIL: In order to understand whether the Library does provide comprehensive guidelines it is necessary to have a detailed overview of

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Comparison Study of Computer Operating System (between Mac OS and Windows) - Research Paper Example The significance of the problem is that choosing a reliable and performing operating system makes the difference between comfortable use of the computer as opposed to a use that is punctuated by frequent breakdowns and crashes that can impair productivity of the user. Hence, choosing a good operating system is in the best interests of the consumer and this report attempts to provide a guide to selecting a reliable and performing operating system. The report surveys the existing literature on the comparison between the Windows and Mac OS and also relies on some firsthand observations that have been made by experts who have compared these two operating systems. The point of comparison is in terms of the factors listed above and I have referred extensively to the available information as far as comparison of these factors is concerned. The project methods that have been used to gather information include interviews, review of studies and published material from reputed trade and academic journals and the forums discussing the relative merits and demerits of these two operating systems. My qualifications for doing a comparison between Windows and Mac operating systems is that currently I am using both (Mac OS on my laptop and Windows OS on my PC) and this gives me unique insights into the way each of the operating systems operate. In this report, I use my practical experience as well as the reviews of each of the operating systems from trade journals and websites dedicated to the operating systems to compare the pros and cons of each operating system. The report would focus on how I have gained from using the different operating systems and how the other categories of users have responded with their views. A further point is that I am majoring in related fields to the topic and hence this review falls within my subject area as well as area of interest. I hope

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Health care policy and financing - Research Paper Example Below are various competencies that the nurse is expected to exhibit in the face of the Medicare & Medicaid Innovation. 712.1.1: Legislative and Regulatory Processes The legislative instrument guiding the formation and operation of the Medicare & Medicaid Innovation is vested in the Social Security Amendments of 1965, which was specifically set up to cater for the health needs of specific categories of United States citizens with low income and economic resources (Dziegielwski, Turnage and Roest-Marti, 2004). What this means is that both Medicare and Medicaid are population stratified legislations that cover a specific population. The process of implementing the legislation was vested into individual states. This means that each state administers or implements its own Medicare & Medicaid Innovation policies. The idea of doing this is to promote healthy competition among the various state implementing agencies. This not withstanding, there is a federal regulation of the project, which as at now is vested to the care of federal Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS). The general process of monitoring and evaluation of the regulation of the policy is there in the hands of the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS), who are in return expected to render feedback accounts to the larger population of the United States. 712.1.2: Policy Development There are several ways that the Medicare & Medicaid Innovation impacts clinical practice and healthcare delivery. Over the years, there are realistic data to suggest that the Medicare & Medicaid Innovation is indeed developing fast at the state and national level. It is not for nothing therefore that the Medicare & Medicaid Innovation has on several occasions being copied by different countries and nations in different formats (Malcomson Law, 2012). Within the United States premises, it has been noted that the policy has come as a perfect intervention for bridging the gap between the poor and rich in terms of healthcare reception. This is because before the implementation of the policy, only a few privileged ones had the luxury of receiving quality healthcare, but today, the system has changed (Kanner, 2001). In effect, healthcare delivery can now be referred to as a right rather than a privilege in the United States and this right is enjoyed by all people with different socio-economic backgrounds. 712.2.1: U.S. Healthcare Delivery In the United States, what makes the Medicare & Medicaid Innovation unique is how healthcare is delivered in general. This is to say that the United States has an entirely different healthcare delivery process. In the first instance, healthcare delivery is done from an individualized perspective (Kanner, 2001). What this means is that healthcare delivery is targeted at solving the individual needs of people. It is for this reason that healthcare implementation for major policies such as the Medicare & Medicaid Innovation is done at the state level. The ide a is that different states have different health needs and so should have their healthcare delivered from different perspectives. With specific reference to the Medicare & Medicaid Innovation, the United States has such as a specialized healthcare delivery system that makes it possible for different states to have the policy in different formats. For example, Maine implements the program as MaineCare whiles California implements the pr

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Environmentally Friendly Electric Car Project - Case Study Example Other highly topical items driving the debate include steadily rising prices for traditional fuels used to power vehicles. As the focus of the activities of University Research Group 2, the electric car, with its inherent environmental friendliness, has distinct advantages to offer to the transport market. With the family saloon sector in mind, the electric car has a number of immediate advantages: safety and convenience coming from battery- or solar-power; efficiency from the flexible power of electric motors; economy using the duality of the electric motor and electric generator (Her Electric Vehicle, 2008). In addition, with urban traffic restrictions looming and already in place in London (Edmunds, 2007), the electric car is well placed in terms of practically zero pollution and reduced noise of operation. In a society where transport habits are still centred around the car and other means such as public transport, walking and cycling take a back seat, the electric car promises much as a solution that responds to both the consumer's needs and desires. Car manufacturers themselves seem to have some difficulty in gauging the size of the market. ... Even the major players like Toyota, a leader in hybrid electric-petrol-engine vehicles admits that "we just don't yet know the size of that market" (Calcars, 2007). The main competitor for Toyota, General Motors, recently announced plans to launch its own electric saloon car, the Volt (a PHEV - plug-in hybrid electric vehicle), with a stated 60,000 vehicles for the initial launch year (Green, 2007). Closer to home here in the UK, the specialist car company Th!nk (sic) has made public their goal to produce and sell 9,000 electric cars to sell in the UK as well as Switzerland, Norway and Denmark (Winnie, 2008). Extrapolating from these numbers suggests that the UK market for electric cars for the private consumer runs to some 48,000 units per year at the moment, of which Th!nk is aiming to capture 14%. Competition Competition in this market can be categorised in three ways. Firstly, the direct competition from other companies and organisations similar to University Research Group 2: in other words, specialists in this market, typified for example by Th!nk. Secondly, by the major car manufacturers operating on a global basis who have launched mainly hybrid models but appear to be moving towards a pure BEV (Battery Electric Vehicle) offering. General Motors is an example, as is Nissan and Toyota. Thirdly, there are the other competing elements including but not limited to petrol and diesel engine vehicles as well as low consumer awareness (ILEA, 2001). Macro environmental factors - PESTEL model overview In order to analyse and evaluate the development of the market, the potential for an electric car from University Research Group 2 and how this should be presented to the market, we use PESTEL (political, economic, socio-cultural, technological, legal and

See the instructions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

See the instructions - Essay Example By being persuasive, Mr. Berkowitz stated that one can be able to lead others, and even influence others’ perceptions and beliefs. Therefore, when one is communicating persuasively, especially in the workplace, success is always within reach: being persuasive makes one earn the trusts and the confidence of their employers, their co-workers, and even with the industry leaders where they are practicing their respective professions. In addition to persuasion, Mr. Berkowitz also emphasized that being hard working, as well as and displaying a highest level of professionalism is essential for one to succeed, especially if that person wants to set up his or her own company on the future. By being hard working and professional, one will gain the confidence and trusts of the industry, and most importantly the consumers, believing that this particular company would be able to deliver the best services to their clients and business partners alike, a trait that is vital to the success of a start-up

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Citigroup Crisis Management and Continuity Plan - Essay Example The economic crisis in the recent years had a significant impact over the nation thus impacting the businesses of the Citigroup as well. The current research focuses on the responses of the organizational group to the economic crisis and to learn the concepts and use of business management continuity plans in the process. Citigroup and the Global Economic Recession: The global economic recession that hit the United States in the late 2008 and thereafter the entire world affected the nation’s gross domestic product, led to unemployment, decrease in purchases, and decline in investments (U.S. Economic Downturn Worsened at End of 2008, 2009). Root Cause of the Recession leading Citigroup to a Crisis Situation: With the enhancement of the economic slowdown in the United States, the Citigroup started getting affected and was encountered with the crisis of recession. One of the major crises that led to the crisis in the Citigroup was the decline in the demand level among the custome rs. When a financial slowdown was prevailing in the United States, people tended to invest less and save their funds. When the nation was encountered with the decline in the economic growth, customers feared the failure or lack of performance of the different companies that included Citigroup as well. With scarcity in the availability of funds in the economy of the country customers started saving and stopped investing or lending to the company that ultimately led to a crisis for the company (Beek, 2010; Cochrane, 2010, p. 34). Thus the two primary reasons that could be reflected as the root causes for the crisis in the Citigroup are the economic slowdown in the United States followed by the change in the customer outlook and behavior towards fearing the failure of companies to overcome the global crisis, leading to huge declines in the levels of demand. Citigroup before the Crisis: Before the global recession had hit the United States, Citigroup had been successfully performing its activities. Several innovative strategies have been encouraged within the group. Also, with greater expansion plans the company created several job opportunities (Our commitment is our promise, 2006). The year 2007, which was before the economic crisis, the company reflected positive results with respect to its international consumer related performances, wealth management at an international level, as well as operations of services in its different business divisions. However, the results for the banking and marketing segments of the group were not satisfactory. Too much of lending and written down values might have led to such a condition for the group. The revenue generation was thus affected although the customer growth was increasing. The volume of products and the operating expenses of the group also started rising from the previous years. Credit costs for the financial sector of the group also increased (Citigroup’s 2007 Annual Report on Form 10-K, 2007). Citigroup du ring the Crisis: During the global economic slowdown, the Citigroup suffered huge losses that primarily occurred as a result of increasing costs of credits and the intensifying economic recession. Inflation and increasing levels of unemployment, that were resultant from the global econom

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Text Set-Literacy Curriculum - Research Paper Example This leaves no room for ambiguity for students at the same time in understanding the subject matter. It is rather suggested that teachers should undertake activities in class where students will have to select short text as per their choice. However, a limitation is there in this regard i.e. teacher’s obligation for reading each and every story that the students pick as a short text. For this, it can be said that short text is much manageable in reading (Fletcher & Portalupi, 2001). It immediately finishes up in one sitting rather than longer novels that are continued for some days. Looking at the real life examples of reading habits of general public, short text such as tweets, how-to articles, cookbooks, announcements, online forums are read more than longer books. Therefore, there is an avid need of making reading interesting for peers that is possible with the help of short text selection (Cohen,

History of Football Essay Example for Free

History of Football Essay Football, American, distinct type of football that developed in the United States in the 19th century from soccer (association football) and rugby football. Played by professionals and amateurs (generally male college or high school teams), football is one of the most popular American sports, attracting thousands of participants and millions of spectators annually. The forerunner of American football may have been a game played by the ancient Greeks, called harpaston. In this game there was no limit to the number of players. The object was to move a ball across a goal line by kicking, throwing, or running with it. Classical literature contains detailed accounts of the game, including its rougher elements, such as ferocious tackling. Most modern versions of football, however, originated in England, where a form of the game was known in the 12th century. In subsequent centuries football became so popular that various English monarchs, including Edward II and Henry VI, forbade the game because it took interest away from the military sport of archery. By the middle of the 19th century football had split into two distinct entities. Still popular today, these two sports included the football association game, or soccer (the word being a slang adaptation of the three letters, s-o-c, in Association), and rugby, in which players ran with the ball and tackled. Modern football evolved out of these two sports. The Playing Field and the Ball The football playing field is rectangular in shape, measuring 100 yd (91. 4 m) long and 53. 5 yd (48. 9 m) wide. At both ends of the 100-yard dimension, white lines called goal lines mark off the entrances to the end zones. Each team defends one end zone. A team must carry, pass, or kick the ball into the 10-yd (9-m) end zone on the opponents half of the field to score. 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The football consists of an inflated rubber bladder encased in a leather or rubber cover. The ball is an extended spheroid, having a circumference of 28. 5 in (72. 4 cm) around the long axis and 21. 25 in (54 cm) around the short axis. It weighs between 14 and 15 oz (397 and 425 g). Playing Time A game of football is divided into four periods, known as quarters, each consisting of 15 minutes of playing time. The first two periods constitute the first half; the second two comprise the second half. Between the halves, a rest period, usually lasting about 15 minutes, is permitted the players, who may leave the field. The teams change halves of the field at the end of each quarter. The clocks stop at the end of each quarter and at certain other times, when particular events occur or when designated by the officials. The Players Football is played by two opposing teams, each fielding 11 players. Each team tries to move the ball down the field to score in the end zone defended by its opponents. During a football game the teams are designated as the offensive team (the team in possession of the ball) and the defensive team (the team defending a goal line against the offensive team). Players involved in kicking situations are known as the special teams. The 11 players of the offensive team are divided into two groups: 7 linemen, who play on the line of scrimmage (an imaginary line designating the position of the ball) and a backfield of 4 players, called backs, who stand in various positions behind the linemen. The lineman whose position is in the middle of the line is called the center. On his left is the left guard and on his right is the right guard. On the left of the left guard is the left tackle, and on the right of the right guard is the right tackle; similarly, on the ends of the line are the tight end and the split end. The back who usually  stands directly behind the center and directs the play of the offensive team is known as the quarterback. In a balanced backfield formation, or â€Å"T-formation,† the fullback stands behind the quarterback, and the left and right halfbacks stand to either side of the fullback. Teams often use wide receivers in the place of tight ends, split ends, halfbacks, or fullbacks. Wide receivers line up on the line of scrimmage but wide of the rest of the formation. The defensive team consists of a row of linemen, who comprise the defensive line, a row of linebackers, and a collection of defensive backs, known as the secondary. The defensive line can use any number of players, though most teams use three or four linemen. Defensive linemen principally are responsible for stopping the oppositions rushing attack and, in passing situations, putting pressure on the quarterback. The linebackers line up behind the defensive line and, depending on the situation, are used to stop runners, pressure the quarterback, or cover the oppositions receivers. Teams usually employ three or four linebackers. The secondary is comprised of cornerbacks, who cover wide receivers, and safeties, who cover receivers, offer support in stopping the rushing attack, and pressure the quarterback. The secondary commonly consists of two cornerbacks and two safeties. Protective Equipment To protect themselves from the often violent bodily contact that characterizes football, players wear elaborate equipment, including lightweight plasticized padding covering the thighs, hips, shoulders, knees, and often the forearms and hands. Players also wear plastic helmets with guards that cover most of the face. The Officials Play is supervised by impartial officials. Professional and major college football programs use seven officials: a referee, an umpire, a linesman, a field judge, a back judge, a line judge, and a side judge. The officials carry whistles and yellow penalty flags. They blow the whistles or throw the flags to indicate that an infraction of the rules has been committed. The referee is in charge of the game at all levels of play. The referee supervises the other officials, decides on all matters not under other officials specific jurisdiction, and enforces penalties. The referee indicates when the ball is dead (out of play) and when it may again be put into play, and uses hand signals to indicate specific decisions and penalties. The umpire makes decisions on questions concerning the players equipment, their conduct, and their positioning. The principal duty of the linesman is to mark the position of the ball at the end of each play. The linesman has assistants who measure distances gained or lost, using a device consisting of two vertical markers connected by a chain or cord 10 yd (9 m) long. The linesman must particularly watch for violations of the rule requiring players to remain in certain positions before the ball is put into play. The field judge times the game, using a stopwatch for this purpose. In some cases, the stadium scoreboard has a clock that is considered official. Game Procedure At the beginning of each game, the referee tosses a coin in the presence of the two team captains to determine which team kicks off or receives the kickoff. At the start of the second half, these conditions are reversed—that is, the team that kicks off in the first half receives the kickoff to start the second half. During the kickoff, the ball is put in play by a place-kick from the kicking teams 35-yd (32-m) line, or the 30-yd (27. 4-m) line in the National Football League (NFL). The NFL kickoff was moved from the 35-yd line in 1994 to increase the importance of the kickoff return. The kicking team lines up at or behind the ball, while the opponents spread out over their territory in a formation calculated to help them to catch the ball and run it back effectively. If the kick stays within the boundaries of the field, any player on the receiving team may catch the ball, or pick it up on a bounce, and run with it. As the player runs, the player may be tackled by any opponent and stopped, known as being downed. The player carrying the ball is considered downed when one knee touches the ground. Tacklers use their hands and arms to stop opponents and throw them to the ground. After the ball carrier is stopped, the referee blows a whistle to stop play and places the ball on the spot where the runner was downed. Play also stops when the ball carrier runs out of bounds. A scrimmage (action while the ball is in play) then takes place. Before scrimmage begins, the team on offense usually gathers in a circle, called a huddle, and discusses the next play it will use to try to advance the ball. A coach either signals the play choice  to the team from the sidelines, or the teams quarterback chooses from among the dozens of rehearsed plays in the teams repertoire. The defensive team also forms a huddle and discusses its next attempt to slow the offense. Each play is designated by code numbers or words, called signals. After the teams come out of their respective huddles, they line up opposite each other on the line of scrimmage. If the quarterback analyzes the defensive alignment and decides that the chosen play should be changed, the quarterback can call an audible and shout the coded directions for a new play. Play begins when the center crouches over the ball and, on a spoken signal, snaps it—generally to the quarterback—by handing it between his legs. Based upon the chosen play, the quarterback can pass the ball, hand it off to a teammate, or run with it. During the scrimmage, the players on the offensive team may check the defenders using their bodies, but they are constrained by specific rules regarding the use of their hands or arms. The player running with the ball, however, is allowed to use an arm to ward off potential tacklers. The offensive players check defenders, or try to force them out of the way, by performing a maneuver known as blocking. Good blocking is considered a fundamental technique in football. Perhaps the most spectacular offensive play is the forward pass, in which the ball is thrown in a forward direction to an eligible player. The ball is nearly always thrown by the quarterback, and those who may catch it include the other three backs and the two ends. A forward pass may be made only during scrimmage, and then only from behind the line of scrimmage. A lateral pass may be made anywhere on the field anytime the ball is in play. The defending team tries to prevent the attacking team from advancing the ball. The defending players may use their arms and hands in their attempt to break through the opponents line to reach the player with the ball. The defending team tries to keep the offense from gaining any distance, or to stop the offense for a loss by tackling the ball carrier before the ball carrier reaches the line of scrimmage. The offense must advance the ball at least 10 yards (9 m) in four tries, called downs. After each play, the teams line up again and a new scrimmage takes place. If the team on offense fails to travel 10 yards (9 m) in four downs, it must surrender the ball to its opponent after the fourth down. A team will often punt on fourth down if it hasnt gained at least 10 yards (9 m) in its previous three tries. In punting, the kicker drops the ball and kicks it before it touches the ground. By punting, a team can send the ball farther away from its own end zone before surrendering it, thus weakening the opponents field position. Methods of Scoring. The object of the game is to score more points than the opposing team within the regulation playing time. In college football, a game can end in a tie if both teams have scored the same number of points at the end of regulation time. In case of a tie in an exhibition or regular-season professional game, the teams play an overtime period, known as sudden death, in which the first team to score is declared the winner. If neither team has scored at the end of this 15-minute overtime period, then the tie is allowed to stand. In professional playoff games no ties are allowed, and the teams play until one scores. A team scores a touchdown when one of its players carries the ball into the opposing teams end zone or catches a pass in the end zone. A touchdown is worth 6 points. After a team has scored a touchdown, it tries for an extra-point conversion. This is an opportunity to score an additional one or two points with no time elapsing off the game clock. In college football, the offensive team lines up 3 yd (2. 7 m) from the goal line of the opponents and passes, kicks, or runs with the ball. A running or passing conversion in which the ball crosses the goal line counts for 2 points. A conversion by place-kick that propels the ball between the goalposts and over the crossbar counts for 1 point. In professional football, the offensive team lines up 2 yd (1. 8 m) from the goal line. A conversion attempted by place-kicking the ball is worth 1 point. In 1994 the NFL introduced the running or passing 2-point conversion. On offense, teams may also attempt to score by kicking a field goal, which counts for 3 points. A field goal is scored by means of a place-kick, in which one player holds the ball upright on the ground for a teammate to kick. For a successful field goal, the ball must be kicked between the goalposts and over the crossbar. After each field goal and extra-point conversion, the scoring team must kick off to its opponents. Finally, a defensive team earns two points for a safety when it causes the team on offense to end a play in possession of the ball behind its own goal line. If the offensive team downs the ball behind its line intentionally, in certain situations, such as after receiving a kickoff, the play is known as a touchback and does not count in the scoring. When the offensive team suffers a safety, it must punt the ball to the opponents to restart play. Modern Football American football was made popular by teams representing colleges and universities. These teams dominated the game for most of the first 100 years of football in the United States. Even today, despite greatly increased interest in professional football, intercollegiate contests—played by some 640 team—are attended by more than 35 million spectators each year. Many college stadiums hold more than 50,000 spectators; one stadium, at the University of Michigan, holds more than 100,000. Many of the major universities are now grouped in conferences, such as the Big Ten (northern midwest), the Big Eight (midwest), the Pacific Ten (western states), the Southeastern Conference, and the Ivy League (northeast). The birth date of football in the United States is generally regarded by football historians as November 6, 1869, when teams from Rutgers and Princeton universities met in New Brunswick, New Jersey, for the first intercollegiate football game. In the early games, each team used 25 players at a time. By 1873 the number was reduced to 20 players, in 1876 to 15 players, and in 1880 to 11 players, where it has remained. In the 1900s, college football became one of the countrys most popular sports spectacles. Ranked among the greatest United States sports heroes of the 20th century are such student athletes as Jim Thorpe of Carlisle Institute; George Gipp of the University of Notre Dame; Red Grange of the University of Illinois; Tom Harmon of the University of Michigan; Doak Walker of Southern Methodist University; Glenn Davis and Doc Blanchard, the â€Å"Touchdown Twins† of Army (the U. S. Military Academy); Joe Namath of the University of Alabama; and O. J. Simpson of the University of Southern California. In 1935 the Downtown Athletic Club of New York City established an award honoring one of the outstanding college football coaches in the country, John William Heisman. Heisman is credited with legalizing the forward pass in 1906. The John W. Heisman Memorial Trophy is awarded annually to the outstanding college player of the year, as decided by a national poll of sportswriters. After World War II ended in 1945, college athletes began to receive football scholarships, often paying the players room, board, tuition, and incidental expenses while enrolled in college. College Bowl Games and National Champions. College teams generally play about 11 games during the fall. The best college teams are awarded trips to so-called bowl games, matching outstanding teams in games that conclude the seasons competition. The tradition was begun in 1902 at Pasadena, California, when Stanford University invited the University of Michigan to come to California for a New Years Day contest. This event soon became the celebrated Rose Bowl game. Bowl games now represent the climax of the college season. Other notable bowl games include the Cotton Bowl in Dallas, Texas; the Orange Bowl in Miami, Florida; and the Sugar Bowl in New Orleans, Louisiana. In recognition of the great public interest in these games, major corporations now sponsor many of the bowls. Today, the champion college team is selected by national polls of coaches and sportswriters. In the accompanying table, the teams from 1889 to 1923 were Helms Athletic Foundation selections; from 1924 to 1930, Rissman Trophy winners; from 1931 to 1935, Rockne Memorial Trophy winners; from 1936 to today, Associated Press (AP) poll selections; and from 1950 to today, United Press International (UPI) poll selections. In cases where two teams won the honor in separate AP and UPI polls, a note has been made. Many members of the football community debate whether a poll of writers and coaches should determine a champion or whether the colleges should institute a more formal playoff system. Detractors of a playoff system argue that with such a system, the popular bowl games would lose their identity. In addition, players seasons would extend by one or two months, cutting into academic time. However, advocates for a playoff point to the controversial 1993 season in which the Florida State Seminoles won the number-one ranking over Notre Dame, a team that beat the Seminoles convincingly earlier in the season. Beginnings of Professional Football The first professional football game in the United States took place in 1895 in the town of Latrobe, Pennsylvania, between a team representing Latrobe and a team from Jeannette, Pennsylvania. In the following ten years many professional teams were formed, including the Duquesnes of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; the Olympics of McKeesport, Pennsylvania; the Bulldogs of Canton, Ohio; and the team of Massillon, Ohio. Among noted college players who took up the professional game during its early years were Willie Heston (formerly at the University of Michigan), Jim Thorpe (Carlisle Institute), Knute Rockne (University of Notre Dame), and Fritz Pollard (Brown University). The professional game attracted only limited public support during its first 30 years. The first league of professional football teams was the American Professional Football Association, formed in 1920. The admission fee was $100 per team. The teams pledged not to use any student player who still had collegiate eligibility left, as the good will of the colleges was believed to be essential to survival. The teams also agreed not to tamper with each others players. Jim Thorpe, a player-coach for one of the teams, became president of the league during its first year. The American Professional Football Association gave way in 1922 to the National Football League (NFL). Red Grange, the famous halfback from the University of Illinois, provided a tremendous stimulus for the league when he joined the Chicago Bears in 1925 and toured the United States that year and the next. His exciting play drew large crowds. Thereafter, professional football attracted larger numbers of first-rate college players, and the increased patronage made the league economically viable. Strategically, the early NFL game was hardly distinguishable from college football at that time. There was no attempt to break away from collegiate playbooks or rule books. For 13 years the NFL followed the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Rules Committee recommendations. In the leagues early years, players considered the low-paying NFL a part-time job and held other jobs during the day. Thus, while college coaches could drill their players daily for hours, professional football coaches arranged practices in the evenings, sometimes only three or four times a week. Development of Offensive Strategies The offensive techniques and formations prevalent in the contemporary game developed from the ideas of early and mid-20th century coaches such as Walter Camp, Alonzo Stagg, Pop Warner, Fielding â€Å"Hurry Up† Yost, Bob Zuppke, Knute Rockne, and Paul Brown. Following very few historical precedents, these men innovated unique strategies that changed the nature of football forever. Stagg, operating out of the early T-formation, originated the between-the-legs snap from center to quarterback and put a player in motion in the backfield before the snap of the ball. In 1906 Warner unbalanced his line, placing four players on one side of the center and two on the other side, while shifting the backfield into a wing formation. The quarterback functioned as a blocker, set close behind the line and a yard wide of the center. At the same depth, but outside the line, was the wingback. Deep in the backfield was the tailback, who received most of the snaps, and in front and to the side was the fullback. This formation became known as the â€Å"Single-Wing,† and it remained footballs basic formation until the 1940s. From the Single-Wing emerged Warners â€Å"Double-Wing,† with wingbacks set wide on either side of the line. This formation forced the defense to spread itself across the field in order to protect against the pass, thus creating favorable conditions for the offense to execute unexpected running plays. The strategy is the same as todays â€Å"draw† and â€Å"end-around† concepts, but Warners teams could also pass from the formation. Warner would also open up the lines completely, splitting the ends into modern â€Å"slot† positions, inside the wingbacks. This was a four-receiver formation that evolved into the â€Å"Shotgun† offense, popularized by the San Francisco 49ers of 1960. Like the double-wing, the â€Å"Shotgun† utilized two wideouts and two slot players, with the passer set deep in the backfield next to a running back. The NFLs newest formation of the 1990s, the â€Å"Run and Shoot† offense, also resembles Warners formation. With Warners innovations, wing formations came to dominate the NFL. Coach Zuppke at Illinois ran single- and double-wing formations, often sending four or five receivers downfield in pass patterns. Some teams would use a short-punt formation, with the quarterback and wings set on different sides, providing a more balanced look. At Notre Dame in 1923 and 1924, Rockne instituted his famous Four Horsemen offense. At the beginning of a play, Rockne set up the backs in a four-square, box alignment on one side. Then, in the famous â€Å"Notre Dame Shift,† the backs would shift out of the box and into a single or double wing. In later years, other coaches imitated Rocknes innovation and achieved similar success. For example, former Washington Redskins coach Joe Gibbs implemented an offensive strategy called the â€Å"Explode Package. † Modeled after Rocknes Notre Dame Shift, the Explode Package helped the Redskins defeat the Miami Dolphins in the 1983 Super Bowl. In Gibbss system, the backs and receivers would jump into new positions before the snap, thus unsettling the defense. Although talented, the quarterbacks of the 1930s and parts of the 1940s seldom completed 50 percent of their passes, while many were even less successful. A major cause of these low percentages was the primitive nature of pass-blocking schemes. With little protection, passers always had to throw while avoiding incoming rushers. In the 1940s Paul Brown, the coach of the Cleveland Browns, installed a blocking system which transformed the passing game forever. Brown changed the system by arranging the linemen in the form of a cup. They pushed most incoming pass-rushers to the outside. Anyone who penetrated the line was met by a firmly planted fullback named Marion Motley. From that point on, the passing game achieved a new significance. Other teams implemented strong blocking lines, providing the quarterback with more time to release the ball. The contemporary game of the 1980s and 1990s is noted for its exciting and effective passing plays in both the professional and college ranks. Artificial turf, the surface in many of the nations stadiums, provides excellent footing for quarterbacks and receivers. With strong protection, talented quarterbacks make a perceivable difference to a game. For example, quarterback Joe Montana keyed the San Francisco 49ers three Super Bowl victories in the 1980s. Montana, who benefited from good protection, could instinctively read defenses and had the ability to deliver the ball accurately to his receivers while on the move. In college football, the University of Miami Hurricanes dominated the game in the late 1980s with a flashy passing game and a quick defense that could react effectively to the pass. Development of Defensive Strategies One striking aspect of modern football is its emphasis on defense as well as offense. This trend began after World War II (1939-1945), when college teams were allowed free substitution of players—that is, a player could enter and leave the game an unlimited number of times, as long as the ball was not in play during the substitution. This feature of the game led to the modern two-platoon system, in which one group of 11 players enters the game to play offense and a second group enters to play defense. Such a system has fostered the development of individual skills and specialization among players. Defensive football has acquired an extensive terminology of its own. In some ways defense is more complicated than offense, because defensive teams have fewer restrictions on their manner of lining up. Generally, however, the defensive formation is determined by the way the offense lines up. For example, when defending against opponents who are expected to throw many forward passes, a team might use a formation with a four-player line of two ends and two tackles. Three linebackers would stand directly behind the front four. In addition, two cornerbacks placed wider and farther back could defend against mid-range assaults. Two safeties would position themselves deeper to protect against longer aerial attacks. Most of the innovative thinking by coaches in the NFL during the 1970s came on defense. Offensive statistics plummeted as defenses dominated. The newer game demanded speed at every position, in addition to strength and bulk. Great linebacker units with catchy names such as Doomsday in Dallas, Pittsburghs Steel Curtain, Minnesotas Purple People Eaters, and the Rams Fearsome Foursome dominated offenses. Teams turned the free safety position over to ferocious hitters such as the Raiders Jack Tatum and Dallas Cliff Harris. Rough, physical cornerbacks such as Pittsburghs Mel Blount and Oaklands Willie Brown employed tight bump-and-run techniques on receivers downfield. Professional Football Today. The present-day NFL game is immensely popular. It is played during the late summer, through autumn, and into January. Professional teams play 4 exhibition games before the start of the regular season, followed by 16 games in the regular season and then playoff games, when they qualify for the playoffs. Teams play one game each week, using the time between games to recover, practice, and prepare for the next game. Each team receives one week without a game, known as a bye, during the season. The NFL is a big business for players, owners, advertisers, and other industries tied to the sport. NFL franchises generate huge revenues for host cities, in addition to promoting civic pride and national exposure. Thus, cities often compete for teams, offering prospective teams bigger and better stadiums, guaranteed fan support, and various economic incentives. In the 1980s three NFL teams relocated: the Raiders moved from Oakland, California, to Los Angeles in 1982; the Colts moved from Baltimore, Maryland, to Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1984; and the Cardinals moved from Saint Louis, Missouri, to Phoenix, Arizona, in 1988. Other teams have agreed to stay only with the promise of new facilities by their host cities. Throughout the years, other consortiums have sought to capitalize on the economic potential of the sport. For three years in the 1980s a new professional spring league, the United States Football League (USFL), competed with the NFL. The NFL lost players to the USFL, and NFL teams had to pay higher salaries to keep other players from leaving. However, the USFL soon folded, with much of its more talented personnel entering the NFL. Super Bowl The Super Bowl is the final contest of the professional season and determines the leagues annual champion. Currently the Super Bowl routinely finishes among the all-time top 50 programs in television ratings, and the 1994 game reached an estimated 750 million viewers around the world. Now probably the most important single-day sporting event in the United States, the Super Bowl had more modest beginnings. In 1967 the champions of the American Football League (which merged with the NFL in 1970) and the NFL met in what was called the AFL-NFL World Championship Game. The name was later shortened to Super Bowl, named after a childs toy, the Super Ball. In this first game, the Green Bay Packers beat the Kansas City Chiefs, 35-10. The Los Angeles Coliseum, site of the game, fell far short of a sellout, although tickets were only $10 each. In comparison, the highest ticket price at the 1994 Super Bowl reached $250, with scalpers illegally charging more than twice that much. Rule Changes and Modern Developments The game of football has a history of constant rule changes. Rule changes have been implemented to bolster the excitement of the game of football and to increase the games safety. By 1906 the game was extremely rough, and many injuries and some deaths had occurred. Educators considered dropping the sport despite its popularity on campuses. United States President Theodore Roosevelt, an ardent advocate of strenuous sports, declared that the game must be made safer. As a result, football leaders revamped the game, and many of the rougher tactics were outlawed. In a constant attempt to maintain public interest in the game, NFL rulemakers review trends in their sport. For example, in the early 1970s, the rulemakers brought the hash marks in closer to the center of the field to give offenses more room to throw wide. The move, which increased scoring and made the game more exciting, also helped bolster the running game. Ten NFL runners gained more than 1000 yards in one season (1972) for the first time in history. During the next season, Buffalo Bills running back O. J. Simpson rushed for more than 2000 yards, the first time a player had gained that many yards in a single season. However, the passing game eventually suffered as defenses quickly adjusted. The Pittsburgh Steelers had a stranglehold on the NFL during the 1970s, with four Super Bowl victories. The dominant defensive athletes the Steelers put on the field shut down the wide-open passing attacks that had developed in the previous era. By 1977 scoring was the lowest it had been since 1942, while offensive touchdowns had fallen to their lowest levels since 1938. The rulemakers enacted serious measures after this low-scoring 1977 season, fearing a loss of public interest in the defense-dominated game. They established a zone of only five yards from the line of scrimmage in which a bump by a pass defender was permitted.

Effects of Adverse Perinatal Outcomes (APO)

Effects of Adverse Perinatal Outcomes (APO) Specific Aims Adverse perinatal outcomes (APO) include infants birth defects, maternal pregnant and obstetric complications. Birth defects, including major congenital malformation (MCM) and minor anomaly (MA), become the leading causes of infant morbidity, mortality, and years of potential life lost in the United States.1 Low birth weight (LBW), abnormal condition of new born (ACNB), preterm birth, and Developmental Delay or Disability (DDD) are also birth anomalies that impacts the infants health.2-5 The association of in utero exposure to teratogenic medications with infant birth defects and other anomalies has been widely investigated.6,7 The literature has shown that taking antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) poses an increased risk of having child with congenital malformations in women with epilepsy.79 The most common MCMs caused by in utero exposure to AEDs are orofacial clefts, cardiac abnormalities, neural tube defects, urologic defects, and skeletal abnormalities.80 In utero exposure to valproate, the most teratogenic AED, was associated with elevated risk of impaired cognitive function for children at 3 years of age, and reduced cognitive abilities for children at 6 years old.98,101 However, study results for many medications, such as antidepressants, opioids, antipsychotics, and antibiotics, are inconsistent for fetal safety.[1*-8*] The limited data source and rare incidence of birth defects, ACNBs, and other anomalies restrain the study power, and makes some studies inconclusiv e.8-10 Our long term goal is to determine the association between teratogenic effects of medications that mothers exposed during pregnancy and infants birth defects. The major objective of this study is to build a linked database in Rhode Island (RI) to facilitate the subsequent research on teratogenic effects of medication in RI population. The birth defects and birth certificates data from the Department of Health (DoH) and pharmacy claims from the Medicaid program offer an essential resource to investigate these aims. The availability of hospital diagnoses and birth records offers a significant advantage for investigating birth defects with corresponding clinical conditions in large population with a longitudinal approach. Our team is well suited to conduct this research given extensive expertise in contemporary pharmacoepidemiology, many years of experience on drug safety research, prior drug utilization and birth defects study with the linked data from another state, and clinical expertise from obstetric and gynecologic physicians. Our specific aims are to generate a linked data and investigate the medication utilization and assess the corresponding birth defects with the following efforts: Aim 1: To build a linked database that includes mothers medications prescribed during pregnancy and subsequent adverse perinatal outcomes. We hypothesize that the data from two state departments can be internally linked using identifiers. Mothers medication prescriptions will be extracted from Medicaid claims provided by the RI Executive Office of Health Human Services (EOHHS). The adverse perinatal outcomes include: MCMs, MAs, abnormal conditions of new born, fetal death, and low birth weight, and maternal adverse pregnancy and obstetrical complications. All of these outcomes will be obtained from birth certificates, institutional and professional claims that are collected and managed by RI Department of Health (DoH). These two parts of data will be linked by the deterministic or probabilistic linking strategy using mothers medical record number, name, and date of born. We will apply for IRB approval with a waiver of informed consent by RI DoH, EOHHS, Brown, and URI. Aim 2: To characterize the patterns of medication use in women during pregnancy. We hypothesize that medication use in women during pregnancy changes in recent years. Many medications, such as AEDs, statin, or angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), have been classified as teratogens and categorized as D or X by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). However, studies have found that these teratogenic drugs still have been prescribed to pregnant women.5-7 Some medications with contradictive results reported from the literature may have increased use in pregnant women. We will examine the prescribing patterns of these medications in pregnant women with varied age, race, comorbidities, co-medications, as well as medication types and doses. The utilization pattern will be delineated in secular trends and mapped geographically, as will facility, provider, and state-level variations. Aim 3: To assess infants birth defects and birth anomalies using advanced statistical model. We will identify all corresponding birth defects, including MCM, MA, LBW, ACNB, DDD, preterm birth, and fetal death and compare the birth defect rates in mothers with varied demographic characteristics and medication exposure. Previous studies have suggested that the LVM can be used to combine four specific birth defects together to create a severity index.16-18 We hypothesize that this LVM can be improved and optimized to combine any number of components with a proper weight on severity and frequency to evaluate the overall health status of infants. B. Significance and Innovation Birth defects occur in 3 5% of children born in the United States and account for 20% of all infant deaths.1,2 During 2010-2012, RI DoH identified 1,390 newborns with at least one birth defect.3 The rate of birth defects in RI increased by 14.2% from 2008 to 2012.3 It was reported that 2-3% of birth defects are due to teratogen-induced malformations, which refer to malformations resulting from environmental or in utero exposure to teratogens.4 In the United States, about 3 million people currently live with teratogen-induced malformations.4 The FDA defined the pregnancy category to enforce the labeling of drugs with respect to their effects on pregnant women. Some medications, such as AEDs, statin, or ACEs, have been classified in FDA pregnant category D or X due to their teratogenic effects. Previous studies reported a two- to three-fold increase in the malformation rate among infants with in utero exposure to AEDs.21,22,81,82 The incidence rates in infants with in utero exposure to AEDs were 3.1% to 9.0% for MCMs, 37% for one MA, and 11% for two MAs.21,80-83 The risk of malformations for infants with in utero exposure to valproate is 7.3-fold higher than that of non-exposed, and 4-fold higher than those exposed to all other AEDs.7 Some widely used medications, such as antidepressants, opioids, antipsychotics, and antibiotics, tend to have increased utilization in pregnant women while the results from teratogenic studies are controversial and inclusive.[1*-8*] It is difficult to distinguish between the real non-inferior results and power deficiency owing to rare outcomes. It has led to an urgent need to determine the fetal safety of these medications and prevent teratogenic medications prescribing to pregnant women. However, the limited data source and rare incidence of birth defect outcomes impact the study power, and makes studies inconclusive.8-10 Traditional claims data (data from Medicaid or private health plans) is not suitable for birth defect research as it only contains medical information for either mother or infant, not both. Birth certificates or birth defects data doesnt include mothers medication information. As such, to investigate utilization patterns and teratogenic effects of medications, we need to link mothers pharmacy claims with infants birth defects assessments. The linkage should be conducted in a secure data server with patients identifiers. The main goal of this proposed one-year pilot study is to collaborate with the RI EOHHS and RI DOH and generate a linked statewide dataset that includes mothers pharmacy claims and infants birth defect outcomes. This linked dataset will facilitate the researchers in Brown and URI to conduct studies regarding drug-induced birth defects in RI and provide a potential for combining RI linked data with the linked data from other states to conducting drug teratogenic studies in large population. Innovation This proposed study will generate a linked data with combining Medicaid pharmacy claims from the RI EOHHS and birth certificates and birth defects from the RI DOH. This would make RI become the fourth state that possesses the linked mother-infant data in the United States, besides California, Texas, and Florida. Our approach will provide a large linked dataset to facilitate the researchers from URI and Brown to conduct drug-induced birth defects studies. This linked dataset will provide a potential for future drug teratogenic research in large population with combining the RI linked data with the linked data from other states. Our approach will employ state of the art, innovative pharmacoepidemiologic study designs and statistical models, to improve the study power and efficiency. A latent variable model will be employed in this study to combine all birth defects outcomes into a continuous severity score to assess the overall infants morbidity and mortality. C. Approach Data Sources This study is based on a statewide, retrospective 11-year data sources: RI birth certificates and birth defects from January 1, 2006 to December 31, 2016. In Rhode Island, birth certificates are collected in the hospital within 24 to 48 hours after the baby birth. The RI DoH collects and manages birth certificate data for all infants born in RI. Birth dates and places for infants, and demographic characteristics for infants, mothers, and fathers are all recorded in birth certificates. The RI Birth Defects dataset consists of birth defects registry data prepared and maintained by RI DoH. Infant birth defects, including MCMs and MAs, were identified 0-365 days after live birth from hospital inpatient and outpatient claims. This study includes infants who were born in RI between January 01, 2006 and December 31, 2016. Medication information will be provided by the RI EOHHS. The data is comprised of eligibility, medical, and pharmacy claims for services from inpatient hospitals, outpatient clinics, emergency rooms, and pharmacies from January 01 2005 to December 31 2016. Brief demographics for enrolled members are included in Medicaid claims data, such as age, gender, race, residency, etc. Medicaid claims data do not include claims for managed care or Medicare enrollees. We excluded patients with dual eligibility, and thus restricted the drug exposure cohort to pregnant women who were only in the fee-for-service or primary care case management program. Each data source will be cleaned first, and then linked with other corresponding datasets using a multi-step linkage approach in which three methods of linkage are applied in sequence Deterministic, Fuzzy Matching, and Probabilistic.156 Records will be first matched deterministically, based on exact matches of unique combinations of personal identifiers including Social Security Numbers, Date of Birth, and Mothers Names (used for the linkage of BVS to Medicaid only). Records that cannot be exactly matched due to missing or poor data quality will be linked using Fuzzy Matching.156,157 Fuzzy Matching allows at least one occurrence of Social Security Number digit transpositions, name misspelling, or day or month errors in birth date fields.157 Remaining unmatched records will be linked using probabilistic techniques, based on statistical weighting of combinations of personal identifiers. Probabilistic linkage involved a two-step process. 1) Deterministic matching from the first merging step empirically derived weights to the non-missing fields based on successful linkages. 2) After the unlinked data matched with several records by weights, the matches with the highest statistical probability (indicating by high weights) will be chosen. The record remained unmatched when no high weights could be obtained. Study Cohort This study includes female Rhode Island Medicaid enrollees who were older than 15 years of age, delivered a live singleton infant between January 01, 2006 and December 31, 2016, and are enrolled in the Medicaid program as identified by pregnancy status. The study cohort of mother-infant pairs will be generated by linking the Rhode Island Medicaid claims data and Rhode Island Birth defects data using strategies described above. Many women joined the Medicaid program after becoming pregnant. We excluded the women who were enrolled in Medicaid program after a positive pregnant test. More exclusion criteria for maternal-infant pair include: mothers with less than 6 months of Medicaid eligibility before pregnancy; mothers who lost Medicaid eligibility during pregnancy; mothers with dual enrollment with Medicare, HMO, or other private health plans; mothers giving multiple births; mothers with diabetes mellitus (ICD-9-CM: 249.x, 250.x, 790.29, or used of any antidiabetics during baseline), hypertension (ICD-9-CM: 401.x, 416.x, 796.2, , 997.91, 459.3, or used of any antihypertensive drugs during baseline), or HIV pre-pregnancy (ICD-9-CM: 042, 079.53, V08, V01.79, 795.71, or used of any antiretroviral drugs); Infants who were twins, triplets, quadruplets or more; outliers involving infants with birth weight less than 350 g or above 6000 g; mothers or infants missing critical information, such as infants birth weigh t, mothers demographic information, or perinatal medical information. Only less than 1% of infants are missing birth weight records in the birth certificate, these will be excluded from the study.20 Overall Study Design This is a retrospective cohort study based on linked mothers Medicaid claims and state birth registry data. The infants birth date will be the study index date. The drug exposure window will be defined as the subsequent 9-month pregnancy period after the first day of mothers last menstrual date. We will use a 6-month baseline period prior to the first date of mothers last menstrual date to obtain the baseline demographic and clinical information. Birth defect outcomes will be detected 0-365 days after the live birth. The entire study period lasts from January 01 2005 to December 31 2016. Drug Exposure Pharmacy claims in Medicaid have been approved as an accurate source for the assessment of drug exposure in observational studies.158 Mothers medication exposure during pregnancy will be obtained from Medicaid pharmacy claims using NDC codes for filled prescription medications, and the number of days for which the medication is supplied.160 The birth anomalies are associated with exposure during entire pregnancy, MCM relates to the teratogen exposure during the first trimester, and MA and LBW associates with the maternal medication exposure at the third trimester.161 Maternal medication exposure during entire pregnancy period can affect the occurrence of varied birth defects. The exposure window, thus, will be established as a period of 14 days prior to the first day of the mothers last menstrual period (LMP) to the date when infant is born. The drug exposure will be defined as any one dose of study medications dispensed during the exposure window, including which the medication is d ispensed before the exposure window but its supply days cover at least 1 day of the exposure window. Adding 14 days prior to the pregnancy is to include the conception period and the residual effects of medications. Sensitivity study will be conducted to examine the different definitions of medication exposure windows. The mothers LMP will be obtained from birth certificates. If the dates are not available in birth certificates (about 13% of LMP in birth certificates are missing), then this information will be imputed from clinical estimates.163-165 The literature suggests that LMP from birth certificates and clinical estimates agrees within 2 weeks.166 Outcome Assessment In this study, we will identify all individual adverse infant outcomes: birth defects (involving MCM and MA), ACNB, LBW, DDD, and preterm birth from the DoH birth defects data. MCM is defined as an abnormality of an essential anatomic structure that is present at birth and interferes significantly with function and/or requires major intervention.38,39 MCM includes heart malformations, urological defects, oro-facial defects, neural tube defects, and skeletal abnormalities, etc..38,40,41 Drug-induced MCMs mostly occur between the third and eighth week of gestation.44 Any impairment before three weeks is more likely to result in fatality. The fetus becomes less sensitive to teratogenic effects after the eighth week, when the organs have developed. 2-1 delineates the time window of exposure to teratogens and associated MCMs and MAs.44 MA, also called minor congenital malformations, is the abnormal morphologic feature that does not cause serious medical or cosmetic consequences45. Identification of MA can be difficult due to the definition and the easy-variable occurrence area.46 Approximately 70% of MAs occur on the face or hands.46 The prevalence of MA is less than 4% in the general population, and varies by race, ethnicity, and gender.45,46 In healthy newborns, about 15% to 20% have one MA, 0.8% have two MAs, and 0.5% have three or more MAs.46 MA mostly occurs after the eighth week of gestation, which is so-called fetal period.44 The use of teratogens during this period may induce MAs by disturbing the growth of tissues or organs.44 ACNB includes seven medical conditions for new born infants. Infants birth weight less than 2500g, 1500g, and 1000g are categorized respectively as low birth weight (LBW), very low birth weight (VLBW), and extremely low birth weight (ELBW). Infants with low birth weight are likely to be born before 37 weeks of pregnancy. In 2009, 8.16% of live born infants showed low birth weight.50 The high risk of infant mortality and morbidity associated with low birth weight has been documented.51 Although this positive association has been ameliorated over time with improved perinatal technology and intensive care, low birth weight and prematurity still have been identified as risk factors predisposing to cardiovascular dysfunction, lung disorder, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, renal diseases, autism, and developmental delay.52-56 MCM, MA, DDD, and fetal death will be collected from birth to the first 365 days of life using the ICD-9 CM code (740-759.9, 315, 768.0, 768.1) from inpatient and outpatient claims. ACNB and preterm birth will be identified from Rhode Island birth certificatedata, and one year follow ups in infant hospital discharge data. Infant birth weight is accurately recorded in the birth certificate.19 It was noted in previous studies that these birth defects outcomes are highly related to each other.59,70-75 MCM, MA, VLBW, and ELBW relate to significant morbidity, mortality, and childhood disability or serious pregnancy or obstetric complications. 58,70-75 About 6-42% of evolving cognitive dysfunction, 9-26% of neurosensory disabilities, 1-15% of blindness, and 0-9% of deafness occurred in infants born with VLBW and ELBW.71 A significantly higher risk of DDD was found in infants born with MCM (prevalence rate: 8.3, 95%CI: 7.6-9.0).72 A 44% 86% of mortality rate occurs in infants with ELBW (500-750g).73 Moreover, infants with 1, 2, or 3 MAs had a risk rate of corresponding MCMs at 3%, 10%, or 20%, respectively.46 Some risk factors, such as infant gender, maternal age, race, social-economic status, BMI, smoking, alcohol use, nulliparity, comorbidity, and comedication during pregnancy are risk factors for all of these outcomes.75-78 Latent Variable Model Liu and Roth developed an LVM to incorporate four important BD outcomes into a single measurement, the infant morbidity index, to describe an infants overall tendency to BD.13 We will apply this model to combine all birth defects outcomes defined in this study into a continuous index of overall adverse perinatal outcome (APO) in this study. The combined outcome will be evaluated in terms of validity and reliability to ensure the appropriate use of this new methodology. MCM, MA, ACNB, Fetal Death, and DDD will be categorized as a binary variable, and assumed Bernoulli distributed.21 Four levels of LBW will be modeled as a multinomial variable since the four birth weight categories are mutually exclusive and each has its own probability. The summation of the individual probabilities of birth defects outcomes equals one. The unobserved index score will be assumed log-normally distributed. Based upon the assumption of local independence, responses of individual component outcomes are independent given the latent variable.22,23 Thus, the overall probabilities of component outcomes conditional on the latent variable are equal to the products of conditional probability for each individual component outcome.21 Based on the local independence and Bayes rule, the joint distribution for component outcomes can be expressed as an integral of product of multinomial variable for conditional distribution of each component outcome and marginal distribution of latent variable.22-24 Marginal distribution of the latent variable is described as log normal. Given the observed outcomes, we can obtain the posterior distribution of the latent severity score. Furthermore, we assume that the conditional distribution of each categorical observed outcome is nonlinear function of the latent variable.13 The conditional distribution of observed outcome and the latent variable will be linked by two parameters in the non-linear function.The probability of any specific observed outcome equals to 0 when the value of the latent variable equals to 0 because the latent variable accounts for all variation of the observed component outcomes and the relationship among these component outcomes.13 In the non-linear function, the probability of an infant having an individual birth defect outcome is assumed zero if the latent variable is zero, and every normal level (no birth defect or normal weight) will be treated as a reference. The latent variable positively associates with observed outcomes. The larger the latent variable, the higher the probability of the observed outcome.13 Latent Trait Model will be conducted using SAS Proc IML. The proportion of each outcome combination will be calculated. Then each parameter will be estimated using the iteration function for EGNLS starting from iteration 0 with initialized value until the stepping coefficient is less than 10-9. The final results are the estimates of all parameters. The estimate of latent variable will be obtained by entering the computed parameters into posterior function.13 Sensitivity Studies In order to examine the proper definition of exposure window, sensitive studies will be conducted with the exposure window defined as the period of 3, 7, 21, or 30 days prior to the first day of the mothers LMP to the infants birth date. D. Timeline Table. Study Timeline of the Study. Time Period Study Progress Before 07/01/2017 Obtain IRB approval from URI, Brown, RI DoH, and RI EOHHS. Complete DUA with RI DoH and RI EOHHS. 07/01/2017 08/01/2017 Complete data linkage for specific aim 1 08/01/2017 10/01/2017 Complete data cleaning, manipulating, variable editing, and analyses for demographic and clinical characteristics 10/01/2017 01/31/2018 Complete specific aim 2 02/01/2018 02/28/2018 Submit an abstract to the annual meeting of International Society of Pharmacoepidemiology (ISPE) 03/01/2018 06/30/2018 Complete specific aim 3 and submit a journal article

Analysis of Priceline.com :: Internet Online Purchasing E-Commerce Essays

Analysis of Priceline.com Incomplete Paper Priceline.com (PCLN) may have been able to bring a dynamic reverse auction model to the market, but a cloud of doubt now hangs over the company's headquarters in Norwalk, Connecticut. Consumer adoption has been hurt by poor Web site functionality and a rigid bidding system that locks customers into buying products such as plane tickets without any control over specific flight details. On a bullish note, the company was recently reinstated into Connecticut's Better Business Bureau after making improvements to its Web site and customer service. But the bigger problem facing Priceline is a lack of support from investors, who have driven the company's stock down 98% from its 52-week high. Executive departures and layoffs aside, the company's delayed march toward profitability and inability to scale successfully might very well exemplify a doomed model, or a solution in search of a problem. Perhaps an emphasis on price has blinded Priceline to intangibles like quality service and a satisfying experience. It's unclear whether consumers are willing to sacrifice brand and product features to save a few bucks. The announcement in early October that the company's WebHouse Club subsidiary for groceries and gas would close, was a shot heard 'round the Web and Wall Street and signaled the model might be broken. Introduction Which is the one place where you can satisfy your every need (almost every need) at your price? Be it airline tickets, hotel rooms, rental cars, mortgages, new automobiles, or even long distance calling time. The answer would be Priceline.com. All you have to do is know your need, state your terms, and make your offer. It doesn’t get easier than this! Priceline.com was one of the pioneer online companies to traverse the traditional limitations of the Internet and revolutionize online purchasing. It’s strategy – letting the consumer name his/her price, and matching it with a seller who is willing to fill the demand at that price and those conditions, there by providing the required service the consumer desires. Thus Priceline.com is basically an integrated, Web-based e-marketing automated system, which was one of its kinds when it started its business in the consumer marketplace. In simple word it is the ideal middleman, who gets you what you want, wh en you want it through a unique dotcom experience. Priceline.com was formed on April 6, 1998 as a limited liability company, but looking at its potential and rapid success it was soon converted into a corporation.

Free Descriptive Essays - Carnival Rides :: Descriptive Essay, Descriptive Writing

Carnival Rides I have always been fascinated by carnival rides. It amazes me that average, ordinary people eagerly trade in the serenity of the ground for the chance to be tossed through the air like vegetables in a food processor. It amazes me that at some time in history someone thought that people would enjoy this, and that person invented what must have been the first of these terrifying machines. For me, it is precisely the thrill and excitement of having survived the ride that keeps me coming back for more. My first experience with a carnival ride was a Ferris wheel at a local fair. Looking at that looming monstrosity spinning the life out of its sardine-caged occupants, I was dumbstruck. It was huge, smoky, noisy and not a little intimidating. Ever since that initial impression became fossilized in my imagination many years ago, these rides have reminded me of mythical beasts, amazing dinosaurs carrying off their screaming passengers like sacrificial virgins. Even the droning sound of their engines brings to mind the great roar of a fire-breathing dragon with smoke spewing from its exhaust-pipe nostrils. The first ride on one of these fantastic beasts gave me an instant rush of adrenaline. As the death-defying ride started, a lump in my throat pulsed like a dislodged heart ready to walk the plank. As the ride gained speed, the resistance to gravity built up against my body until I was unable to move. An almost imperceptible pause as the wheel reached the top of its climb allowed my body to relax in a brief state of normalcy. Then there was an assault of stomach-turning weightlessness as the machine continued its rotation and I descended back toward the earth. A cymbal-like crash vibrated through the air as the wheel reached bottom, and much to my surprise I began to rise again. Each new rotation gave me more confidence in the churning machine. Every ascent left me elated that I had survived the previous death-defying fall. When another nerve-wracking climb failed to follow the last exhilarating descent and the ride was over, I knew I was hooked.

Interstate 15 and California 60 Freeway Interchange Essay -- transporta

We take them for granted when driving miles to the closest mall. We are unconscious of their usefulness when traveling to see a distant relative by car. We can't take a moment to stop and admire their beauty and usefulness; the architectural wonders that are highways and their interchanges; which have such a rich history embedded in the American suburbia of today. Let's go back to the early 1900's, when the automobile was starting to become a dominate part of the American life (Morton, 2014). Around this time; a shift began to occur towards private transportation over public by influencing policies in their favor (Nicolaides and Wiese, 2006). One of these polices was created by the Federal Aid Highway of 1925; the United States Highway System which basically expanded the highways across the United States connecting one another, creating new opportunities for growth in many areas (Weingroff, 1996). This had many effects on different factors of the American way of life; specifically s uburbia (Morton, 2014). After the war, the private home that was a luxury a few years prior, was now becoming affordable for many thanks to low interest rates and flexible payments through the National Housing Act of 1934, created by the Federal Housing Administration (Fishman, 1987). Perfect example of a policy acting towards private over public was the Los Angles Master Plan of 1941, which pushed the direction of private automobiles and singles households: there being 1.16 million cars (2.4 people per car) and having 31 percent of the city land dedicated for single family homes, this was really solidifying the post suburbia lifestyle (Fishman, 1987). In Los Angeles alone around this time, 900 square miles were transformed to tract development homes ... ... have key roles in their contribution to the development of the highway we know today. Works Cited "California Roads and Highways." California @ AARoads. AARoads, 14 Jan. 2012. Web. 8 Mar. 2014. "Field Guide to Interchanges." Kurumi. Kurumi, n.d. Web. 8 Mar. 2014. Fishman, Robert. Bourgeois Utopias: The Rise and Fall of Suburbia. New York: Basic, 1987. Print. Morton, Patricia. "." Introduction to Architecture and Urbanism: Suburbia. University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA. 06 February, 2014. Lecture. Nicolaides, Becky M., and Andrew Wiese. "Postwar Suburbs and the Construction of Race." The Suburb Reader. New York: Routledge, 2006. 321-48. Print. Weingroff, Richard F. "Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956: Creating the Interstate System." Public Roads. US Department of Transportation - Federal Highway Administration, Summer 1996. Web. 09 Mar. 2014.

Kfc Pizzahut Supply Chain

KFC/Pizza Hut makes efficiency gains with Zap Business Intelligence Businesses become more agile, responsive and performance-focused Situation There are over 120 KFC and Pizza Hut outlets in Singapore, employing about 5,000 staff. Both brands also offer Singapore-wide delivery services. In the face of rapid business growth, KFC/Pizza Hut found that their business intelligence (BI) system was unable to cope. It fared badly when meeting corporate reporting requirements, benchmarking store performance, and reducing the time and costs spent on day-to-day reporting across multiple business systems. We faced daily challenges in producing timely reports and complex analysis across our many restaurants and product lines to make informed decisions,† said Mr Tan Teng Sern, System Analyst with KFC/ Pizza Hut in Singapore. For example, day-to-day operational reporting is required to calculate the pay to daily-rated workers like delivery staff. Using the old BI system, it could take restaur ant managers hours at the end of each day to tally the number of deliveries that each rider had made, resulting in restaurant managers working overtime, and riders waiting for their payment.The system was also difficult to use and rigid in design. Work which could take up to a few days every month also went into generating reports to meet corporate requirements. The problem in generating timely reports also hindered KFC/ Pizza Hut’s ability to respond quickly to changes in the business environment. What they needed was a solution that would let them set different objectives for different departments, and monitor each department’s performance. Case Study Name: KFC & Pizza Hut Overview: KFC and Pizza Hut are major players in the local food and beverage market.Since establishing the first KFC outlet in Singapore in 1977, the chain has grown to over 120 outlets employing about 5,000 staff. KFC/Pizza Hut faced difficulties when meeting corporate reporting requirements, benc hmarking store performance, and reducing the time and costs spent on reporting across multiple business systems. Products Used: Zap Business Intelligence â€Å"Improving reporting and analysis across our restaurants and head offices offers considerable gains in efficiency and will enable our businesses to become more agile, responsive and performance-focused. Mr Tan Teng Sern System Analyst KFC/Pizza Hut Solution KFC/Pizza Hut embarked on a search for an affordable, high-performance and easy to maintain business intelligence and data warehousing solution. â€Å"We could not afford to have a data warehouse project that would take months or years to implement,† said Mr Tan. â€Å"With the scale of hundreds of users, it would have been very costly for us to adopt most of the available solutions in the market. † These requirements led KFC/Pizza Hut to Zap and its solution, Zap Business Intelligence. We chose Zap Business Intelligence because it offers powerful functionali ty and proven scalability, and yet is easy to install, maintain, and use,† said Mr Tan. The deployment aced its test with KFC/Pizza Hut when Zap was rolled out in the production environment. Here, users wanted to incorporate other data sources to complete the corporate data warehouse, including Pointof-Sale, Marketing, HR/Payroll, and Supply Chain Management. â€Å"With Zap’s help, we built the data warehouse, OLAP cubes and business analytics content for the delivery service business in 10 days.After two months of parallel run and testing, we went live with the Zap Business Intelligence in September 2009,† said Mr Tan. The Zap solution supports close to 400 users, including restaurant managers, operations managers, and back office directors. It brings together key BI capabilities including dashboards, analysis, reporting, KPIs and scorecards, all in a user-friendly web portal. â€Å"We chose Zap Business Intelligence because it offers powerful functionality and proven scalability, and yet is easy to install, maintain, and use,† Mr Tan Teng Sern System Analyst KFC/Pizza HutBenefits Zap’s Business Intelligence has resulted in many significant benefits for KFC/Pizza Hut. â€Å"Improving reporting and analysis across our restaurants and head offices offers considerable gains in efficiency and will enable our businesses to become more agile, responsive and performance-focused,† said Mr Tan. The BI system contributes to greater business agility in several ways: 1) Optimizing marketing spend: The system allows KFC/Pizza Hut to evaluate the effectiveness of marketing campaigns, enabling immediate adjustment of these campaigns to target them more effectively. ) Enabling strategic restaurant planning: By analyzing sales and demand, KFC/Pizza Hut can conduct more effective strategic planning to open the right restaurant at the right location at the right time. 3) Enhancing customer service: The system analyzes delivery punctualit y, and correlates it with parameters such as restaurant and rider, allowing management to make decisions to fine-tune operations, and improve customer service. 4) Improving sales: The analysis of point-of-sale data enables KFC/Pizza Hut to measure the effectiveness of their package deals in order to improve sales.Cost savings Mr Tan estimated that KFC/Pizza Hut will gain a return on investment from Zap Business Intelligence within 12 months, particularly in reducing the amount of staff time spent on daily reporting. The Zap solution has resulted in cost savings in several areas, including improving labor efficiency. With Zap, the time taken for restaurant managers to check reports has been reduced from 30 minutes to about five minutes, and while operation managers and administrators used to spend about an hour a day retrieving reports, this can now be done almost instantly.This has resulted in significant labor cost savings. Another cost saving measure has been reducing the reliance on IT. â€Å"Improving reporting and analysis across our restaurants and head offices offers considerable gains in efficiency and will enable our businesses to become more agile, responsive and performance-focused,† Mr Tan Teng Sern System Analyst KFC/Pizza Hut www. zaptechnology. com  © 2010 Zap Technology – v0510